18E: Mwakilishi Metali, Metalloids, na Nonmetals (Mazoezi)

18.1: Upimaji

Je, metali za alkali zinatofautiana na metali za alkali za ardhi katika muundo wa atomiki na mali ya jumla?

Metali za alkali zote zina elektroni moja katika ganda lao la nje. Kwa upande mwingine, metali za dunia za alkali zina sehemu ndogo ya kukamilika katika shell yao ya nje. Kwa ujumla, metali ya alkali huguswa kwa kasi na ni tendaji zaidi kuliko metali za dunia za alkali zinazofanana katika kipindi hicho.

Kwa nini reactivity ya metali alkali hupungua kutoka cesium hadi lithiamu?

Kutabiri formula kwa misombo tisa ambayo inaweza kuunda wakati kila aina katika safu ya 1 ya Jedwali humenyuka na kila aina katika safu ya 2.

1	2
Na	I
Sr	Se
Al	O

\\ ce {Na + I2 2Nai\\
2Na + Se Na2Se\\
2Na + O2 Na2O2}\]

\ [\ ce {Sr + i2sri2\\
Sr + SeSese\\
2Sr + O22SRO}\]

\\ ce {2 Al + 3 I2 2 ali3\\
2Al + 3 Se Al2 Se3\\
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3}\]

Kutabiri uchaguzi bora katika kila moja ya yafuatayo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya muundo wa elektroniki kwa mifano husika.

1. (a) metali zaidi ya vipengele Al, Kuwa, na Ba
2. (b) covalent zaidi ya misombo NaCl, CaCl ₂, na BeCl ₂
3. (c) nishati ya kwanza ya ionization kati ya vipengele Rb, K, na Li
4. (d) ndogo kati ya Al, Al ⁺, na Al ³⁺
5. (e) kubwa kati ya Cs ⁺, Ba ²⁺, na Xe

Kloridi ya sodiamu na kloridi ya strontium ni nyeupe kali. Unawezaje kutofautisha moja kutoka kwa nyingine?

Njia zinazowezekana za kutofautisha kati ya hizo mbili ni pamoja na spectroscopy ya infrared kwa kulinganisha misombo inayojulikana, mtihani wa moto ambao hutoa rangi ya njano ya sodiamu (strontium ina moto nyekundu), au kulinganisha umumunyifu wao katika maji. Katika 20 °C, NaCl hupasuka kwa kiwango cha\(\mathrm{\dfrac{35.7\: g}{100\: mL}}\) ikilinganishwa na\(\mathrm{\dfrac{53.8\: g}{100\: mL}}\) kwa sRCl ₂. Inapokanzwa hadi 100 °C hutoa mtihani rahisi, tangu umumunyifu wa NaCl ni\(\mathrm{\dfrac{39.12\: g}{100\: mL}}\), lakini ile ya sRCl ₂ ni\(\mathrm{\dfrac{100.8\: g}{100\: mL}}\). Uamuzi wiani juu ya imara wakati mwingine ni vigumu, lakini kuna tofauti ya kutosha (2.165 g/ml NaCl na 3.052 g/ml SrCl ₂) kwamba njia hii itakuwa faida na labda rahisi na angalau ghali mtihani kufanya.

Majibu ya haraka, CaO, na maji hutoa chokaa slaked, Ca (OH) ₂, ambayo hutumiwa sana katika sekta ya ujenzi ili kufanya chokaa na plasta. Majibu ya haraka na maji ni exothermic sana:

\[\ce{CaO}(s)+\ce{H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Ca(OH)2}(s) \hspace{20px} ΔH=\mathrm{−350\: kJ\:mol^{−1}}\]

1. (a) Ni nini enthalpy ya mmenyuko kwa gramu ya quicklime ambayo humenyuka?
2. (b) Kiasi gani cha joto, katika kilojoules, kinahusishwa na uzalishaji wa tani 1 ya chokaa cha slaked?

Andika usawa wa usawa kwa mmenyuko wa strontium ya msingi na kila moja ya yafuatayo:

1. (a) oksijeni
2. (b) bromidi ya hidrojeni
3. (c) hidrojeni
4. (d) fosforasi
5. (e) maji

(a)\(\ce{2Sr}(s)+\ce{O2}(g)⟶\ce{2SrO}(s)\); (b)\(\ce{Sr}(s)+\ce{2HBr}(g)⟶\ce{SrBr2}(s)+\ce{H2}(g)\); (c)\(\ce{Sr}(s)+\ce{H2}(g)⟶\ce{SrH2}(s)\); (d)\(\ce{6Sr}(s)+\ce{P4}(s)⟶\ce{2Sr3P2}(s)\); (e)\(\ce{Sr}(s)+\ce{2H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Sr(OH)2}(aq)+\ce{H2}(g)\)

Ni moles ngapi za aina za ionic zilizopo katika 1.0 L ya suluhisho iliyowekwa 1.0 M zebaki (I) nitrate?

Je, ni wingi wa samaki, kwa kilo, ambayo mtu atapaswa kula ili kupata dozi mbaya ya zebaki, ikiwa samaki ina sehemu 30 kwa milioni ya zebaki kwa uzito? (Fikiria kwamba zebaki yote kutoka samaki huishia kama kloridi ya zebaki (II) katika mwili na kwamba dozi mbaya ni 0.20 g ya HgCl ₂.) Ni paundi ngapi za samaki ni hii?

11 LB

Mambo ya sodiamu, alumini, na klorini ni katika kipindi hicho.

1. (a) Ambayo ina electronegativity kubwa?
2. (b) Ni atomi ipi iliyo ndogo zaidi?
3. (c) Andika muundo wa Lewis kwa kiwanja kilicho rahisi zaidi ambacho kinaweza kuunda kati ya alumini na klorini.
4. (d) Je, oksidi ya kila kipengele itakuwa tindikali, msingi, au amphoteric?

Je, bati ya metali huguswa na HCl?

Ndiyo, bati humenyuka na asidi hidrokloric kuzalisha gesi ya hid

Je, ni wadudu wa bati, pia unajulikana kama ugonjwa wa bati?

Linganisha asili ya vifungo katika PBCl ₂ na ile ya vifungo katika PBCl ₄.

Katika PBCl ₂, bonding ni ionic, kama ilivyoonyeshwa na kiwango chake cha kiwango cha 501 °C Katika PBCl ₄, bonding ni covalent, kama inavyothibitishwa na kuwa kioevu imara kwenye joto la kawaida.

Je, mmenyuko wa rubidium na maji zaidi au chini ya nguvu kuliko ile ya sodiamu? Je, kiwango cha mmenyuko wa magnesiamu kinalinganishaje?

18.2: Matukio na Maandalizi ya Metali za Mwakilishi

Andika equation kwa kupunguza kloridi ya cesiamu na kalsiamu ya msingi kwa joto la juu.

\[\ce{2CsCl}(l)+\ce{Ca}(g)\:\mathrm{\overset{countercurrent \\ fractionating \\ tower}{\xrightarrow{\hspace{40px}}}}\:\ce{2Cs}(g)+\ce{CaCl2}(l)\]

Kwa nini ni muhimu kuweka klorini na sodiamu, kutokana na electrolysis ya kloridi ya sodiamu, tofauti wakati wa uzalishaji wa chuma cha sodiamu?

Kutoa usawa usawa kwa majibu ya jumla katika electrolysis ya kloridi ya lithiamu iliyoyeyuka na kwa athari zinazotokea kwenye electrodes. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura ya electrochemistry kwa mifano husika.

Cathode (kupunguza):\(\ce{2Li+} + \ce{2e-}⟶\ce{2Li}(l)\); Anode (oxidation):\(\ce{2Cl-}⟶\ce{Cl2}(g)+\ce{2e-}\); Jibu la jumla:\(\ce{2Li+}+\ce{2Cl-}⟶\ce{2Li}(l)+\ce{Cl2}(g)\)

Electrolysis ya kloridi ya sodiamu iliyosafishwa au ya kloridi ya sodiamu yenye maji yanazalisha

Tumia wingi wa klorini zinazozalishwa kutoka 3.00 kg kloridi ya sodiamu katika kila kesi. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura ya electrochemistry kwa mifano husika.

Ni kiasi gani, kwa gramu, ya gesi ya hidrojeni huunda wakati wa majibu kamili ya 10.01 g ya kalsiamu na maji?

0.5035 g H ₂

Ni gramu ngapi za gesi ya oksijeni ni muhimu kuguswa kabisa na atomi 3.01 × 10 ²¹ za magnesiamu ili kuzalisha oksidi ya magnesiamu?

Magnésiamu ni chuma cha kazi; huwaka kwa njia ya poda, ribbons, na filaments ili kutoa mwanga wa mwanga wa kipaji. Kwa nini inawezekana kutumia magnesiamu katika ujenzi?

Licha ya reactivity yake, magnesiamu inaweza kutumika katika ujenzi hata wakati magnesiamu itawasiliana na moto kwa sababu mipako ya kinga ya oksidi huundwa, kuzuia oxidation ya jumla. Tu kama chuma ni finely imegawanyika au sasa katika karatasi nyembamba itakuwa moto high-nguvu kusababisha moto wake haraka.

Kwa nini inawezekana kwa chuma cha kazi kama alumini kuwa na manufaa kama chuma cha miundo?

Eleza uzalishaji wa alumini ya metali na kupunguza electrolytic.

Dondoo kutoka kwa madini:\(\ce{AlO(OH)}(s)+\ce{NaOH}(aq)+\ce{H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Na[Al(OH)4]}(aq)\)

Rejesha:\(\ce{2Na[Al(OH)4]}(s)+\ce{H2SO4}(aq)⟶\ce{2Al(OH)3}(s)+\ce{Na2SO4}(aq)+\ce{2H2O}(l)\)

Sinter:\(\ce{2Al(OH)3}(s)⟶\ce{Al2O3}(s)+\ce{3H2O}(g)\)

Futa katika Na ₃ alF ₆ (l) na electrolyze:\(\ce{Al^3+}+\ce{3e-}⟶\ce{Al}(s)\)

Je, ni ore ya kawaida ya bati na ni jinsi gani bati imetenganishwa nayo?

Dakemia hutenganisha sampuli ya 1.497-g ya aina ya chuma (Aloi ya Sn, Pb, Sb, na Cu) katika asidi ya nitriki, na asidi metastannic, H ₂ SNO ₃, inakabiliwa. Anapunguza kasi ya kuendesha maji, ambayo huacha 0.4909 g ya oksidi ya bati (IV). Ni asilimia gani ya bati katika sampuli ya awali?

25.83%

Fikiria uzalishaji wa kilo 100 cha chuma cha sodiamu kwa kutumia sasa ya 50,000 A, kuchukua mavuno ya 100%.

(a) Itachukua muda gani ili kuzalisha kilo 100 cha chuma cha sodiamu?

(b) Ni kiasi gani cha klorini katika 25 °C na 1.00 atm aina?

Ni aina gani ya magnesiamu wakati 100,000 A inapita kupitia MgCl ₂ kuyeyuka kwa 1.00 h ikiwa mavuno ya magnesiamu ni 85% ya mavuno ya kinadharia?

39 kg

18.3: Muundo na Mali ya jumla ya Metalloids

Kutoa hybridization ya metalloid na jiometri ya Masi kwa kila moja ya misombo au ions zifuatazo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya bonding kemikali na juu covalent bonding kwa mifano husika.

1. (a) EgH ₄
2. (b) sBF ₃
3. (c) Te (OH) ₆
4. (d) H ₂ Te
5. (e) GeF ₂
6. (f) Tecl ₄
7. (g)\(\ce{SiF6^2-}\)
8. (h) SBcl ₅
9. (i) TeF ₆

Andika muundo wa Lewis kwa kila moja ya molekuli au ions zifuatazo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding.

1. (a) H ₃ BPH ₃
2. (b)\(\ce{BF4-}\)
3. (c) BBr ₃
4. (d) B (CH ₃) ₃
5. (e) B (OH) ₃

(a) H ₃ BPH ₃:

;

(b)\(\ce{BF4-}\):

;

(c) BBr ₃:

;

(d) B (CH ₃) ₃:

;

(e) B (OH) ₃:

Eleza hybridization ya boroni na muundo wa Masi kuhusu boroni katika kila moja ya yafuatayo:

1. (a) H ₃ BPH ₃
2. (b)\(\ce{BF4-}\)
3. (c) BBr₃
4. (d) B(CH₃)₃
5. (e) B(OH)₃

Using only the periodic table, write the complete electron configuration for silicon, including any empty orbitals in the valence shell. You may wish to review the chapter on electronic structure.

1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p²3d⁰.

Write a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules and ions:

1. (a) (CH₃)₃SiH
2. (b) \(\ce{SiO4^4-}\)
3. (c) Si₂H₆
4. (d) Si(OH)₄
5. (e) \(\ce{SiF6^2-}\)

Describe the hybridization of silicon and the molecular structure of the following molecules and ions:

1. (a) (CH₃)₃SiH
2. (b) \(\ce{SiO4^4-}\)
3. (c) Si₂H₆
4. (d) Si(OH)₄
5. (e) \(\ce{SiF6^2-}\)

(a) (CH₃)₃SiH: sp³ bonding about Si; the structure is tetrahedral; (b) \(\ce{SiO4^4-}\): sp³ bonding about Si; the structure is tetrahedral; (c) Si₂H₆: sp³ bonding about each Si; the structure is linear along the Si-Si bond; (d) Si(OH)₄: sp³ bonding about Si; the structure is tetrahedral; (e) \(\ce{SiF6^2-}\): sp³d² bonding about Si; the structure is octahedral

Describe the hybridization and the bonding of a silicon atom in elemental silicon.

Classify each of the following molecules as polar or nonpolar. You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding.

(a) SiH₄

(b) Si₂H₆

(c) SiCl₃H

(d) SiF₄

(e) SiCl₂F₂

(a) nonpolar; (b) nonpolar; (c) polar; (d) nonpolar; (e) polar

Silicon reacts with sulfur at elevated temperatures. If 0.0923 g of silicon reacts with sulfur to give 0.3030 g of silicon sulfide, determine the empirical formula of silicon sulfide.

Name each of the following compounds:

1. (a) TeO₂
2. (b) Sb₂S₃
3. (c) GeF₄
4. (d) SiH₄
5. (e) GeH₄

(a) tellurium dioxide or tellurium(IV) oxide; (b) antimony(III) sulfide; (c) germanium(IV) fluoride; (d) silane or silicon(IV) hydride; (e) germanium(IV) hydride

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of elemental boron with each of the following (most of these reactions require high temperature):

1. (a) F₂
2. (b) O₂
3. (c) S
4. (d) Se
5. (e) Br₂

Why is boron limited to a maximum coordination number of four in its compounds?

Boron has only s and p orbitals available, which can accommodate a maximum of four electron pairs. Unlike silicon, no d orbitals are available in boron.

Write a formula for each of the following compounds:

1. (a) silicon dioxide
2. (b) silicon tetraiodide
3. (c) silane
4. (d) silicon carbide
5. (e) magnesium silicide

From the data given in Appendix I , determine the standard enthalpy change and the standard free energy change for each of the following reactions:

1. (a) \(\ce{BF3}(g)+\ce{3H2O}(l)⟶\ce{B(OH)3}(s)+\ce{3HF}(g)\)
2. (b) \(\ce{BCl3}(g)+\ce{3H2O}(l)⟶\ce{B(OH)3}(s)+\ce{3HCl}(g)\)
3. (c) \(\ce{B2H6}(g)+\ce{6H2O}(l)⟶\ce{2B(OH)3}(s)+\ce{6H2}(g)\)

(a) ΔH° = 87 kJ; ΔG° = 44 kJ; (b) ΔH° = −109.9 kJ; ΔG° = −154.7 kJ; (c) ΔH° = −510 kJ; ΔG° = −601.5 kJ

A hydride of silicon prepared by the reaction of Mg₂Si with acid exerted a pressure of 306 torr at 26 °C in a bulb with a volume of 57.0 mL. If the mass of the hydride was 0.0861 g, what is its molecular mass? What is the molecular formula for the hydride?

Suppose you discovered a diamond completely encased in a silicate rock. How would you chemically free the diamond without harming it?

A mild solution of hydrofluoric acid would dissolve the silicate and would not harm the diamond.

18.4: Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals

Carbon forms a number of allotropes, two of which are graphite and diamond. Silicon has a diamond structure. Why is there no allotrope of silicon with a graphite structure?

Nitrogen in the atmosphere exists as very stable diatomic molecules. Why does phosphorus form less stable P₄ molecules instead of P₂ molecules?

In the N₂ molecule, the nitrogen atoms have an σ bond and two π bonds holding the two atoms together. The presence of three strong bonds makes N₂ a very stable molecule. Phosphorus is a third-period element, and as such, does not form π bonds efficiently; therefore, it must fulfill its bonding requirement by forming three σ bonds.

Write balanced chemical equations for the reaction of the following acid anhydrides with water:

1. (a) SO₃
2. (b) N₂O₃
3. (c) Cl₂O₇
4. (d) P₄O₁₀
5. (e) NO₂

Determine the oxidation number of each element in each of the following compounds:

1. (a) HCN
2. (b) OF₂
3. (c) AsCl₃

(a) H = 1+, C = 2+, and N = 3−; (b) O = 2+ and F = 1−; (c) As = 3+ and Cl = 1−

Determine the oxidation state of sulfur in each of the following:

1. (a) SO₃
2. (b) SO₂
3. (c) \(\ce{SO3^2-}\)

Arrange the following in order of increasing electronegativity: F; Cl; O; and S.

S < Cl < O < F

Why does white phosphorus consist of tetrahedral P₄ molecules while nitrogen consists of diatomic N₂ molecules?

18.5: Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen

Why does hydrogen not exhibit an oxidation state of 1− when bonded to nonmetals?

The electronegativity of the nonmetals is greater than that of hydrogen. Thus, the negative charge is better represented on the nonmetal, which has the greater tendency to attract electrons in the bond to itself.

The reaction of calcium hydride, CaH₂, with water can be characterized as a Lewis acid-base reaction:

\[\ce{CaH2}(s)+\ce{2H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Ca(OH)2}(aq)+\ce{2H2}(g)\]

Identify the Lewis acid and the Lewis base among the reactants. The reaction is also an oxidation-reduction reaction. Identify the oxidizing agent, the reducing agent, and the changes in oxidation number that occur in the reaction.

In drawing Lewis structures, we learn that a hydrogen atom forms only one bond in a covalent compound. Why?

Hydrogen has only one orbital with which to bond to other atoms. Consequently, only one two-electron bond can form.

What mass of CaH₂ is necessary to react with water to provide enough hydrogen gas to fill a balloon at 20 °C and 0.8 atm pressure with a volume of 4.5 L? The balanced equation is:

\[\ce{CaH2}(s)+\ce{2H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Ca(OH)2}(aq)+\ce{2H2}(g)\]

What mass of hydrogen gas results from the reaction of 8.5 g of KH with water?

\[\ce{KH + H2O ⟶ KOH + H2}\]

0.43 g H₂

18.6: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates

Carbon forms the \(\ce{CO3^2-}\) ion, yet silicon does not form an analogous \(\ce{SiO3^2-}\) ion. Why?

Complete and balance the following chemical equations:

(a) hardening of plaster containing slaked lime

\[\ce{Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ⟶}\]

(b) removal of sulfur dioxide from the flue gas of power plants

\[\ce{CaO + SO2 ⟶}\]

(c) the reaction of baking powder that produces carbon dioxide gas and causes bread to rise

\[\ce{NaHCO3 + NaH2PO4 ⟶}\]

(a) \(\ce{Ca(OH)2}(aq)+\ce{CO2}(g)⟶\ce{CaCO3}(s)+\ce{H2O}(l)\); (b) \(\ce{CaO}(s)+\ce{SO2}(g)⟶\ce{CaSO3}(s)\);

(c) \(\ce{2NaHCO3}(s)+\ce{NaH2PO4}(aq)⟶\ce{Na3PO4}(aq)+\ce{2CO2}(g)+\ce{2H2O}(l)\)

Heating a sample of Na₂CO₃⋅xH₂O weighing 4.640 g until the removal of the water of hydration leaves 1.720 g of anhydrous Na₂CO₃. What is the formula of the hydrated compound?

18.7: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen

Write the Lewis structures for each of the following:

1. (a) NH²⁻
2. (b) N₂F₄
3. (c) \(\ce{NH2-}\)
4. (d) NF₃
5. (e) \(\ce{N3-}\)

(a) NH²⁻:

; (b) N₂F₄: ; (c) \(\ce{NH2-}\): ; (d) NF ₃: ; (e)\(\ce{N3-}\):

Kwa kila moja ya yafuatayo, onyesha mahuluti ya atomi ya nitrojeni (kwa\(\ce{N3-}\), nitrojeni ya kati).

1. (a) N ₂ F ₄
2. (b)\(\ce{NH2-}\)
3. (c) NF ₃
4. (d)\(\ce{N3-}\)

Eleza jinsi amonia inaweza kufanya kazi kama msingi wa Brønsted na kama msingi wa Lewis.

Amonia hufanya kazi kama msingi wa Brønsted kwa sababu inakubali protoni kwa urahisi na kama msingi wa Lewis kwa kuwa ina jozi ya elektroni ili kuchangia.

Brønsted msingi:\(\ce{NH3 + H3O+ ⟶ NH4+ + H2O}\) Lewis msingi:\(\ce{2NH3 + Ag+ ⟶ [H3N−Ag−NH3]+}\)

Kuamua hali ya oxidation ya nitrojeni katika kila moja ya yafuatayo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding kwa mifano husika.

1. (a) nCl ₃
2. (b) ClNo
3. (c) N ₂ O ₅
4. (d) N ₂ O ₃
5. (e)\(\ce{NO2-}\)
6. (f) N ₂ O ₄
7. (g) N ₂ O
8. (h)\(\ce{NO3-}\)
9. (i) HNO ₂
10. (j) HNO ₃

Kwa kila moja ya yafuatayo, futa muundo wa Lewis, utabiri pembe ya dhamana ya ONO, na kutoa mahuluti ya nitrojeni. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding na nadharia ya juu ya covalent bonding kwa mifano husika.

(a) NO ₂

(b)\(\ce{NO2-}\)

(c)\(\ce{NO2+}\)

(a) NO ₂:

Nitrogen ni sp ² mahuluti. Molekuli ina jiometri ya bent yenye pembe ya dhamana ya ONO ya takriban 120°. (b)\(\ce{NO2-}\): Nitrogen ni sp ² iliyochanganywa. Molekuli ina jiometri ya bent yenye pembe ya dhamana ya ONO kidogo chini ya 120°. (c)\(\ce{NO2+}\):

Nitrojeni ni sp hybridized. Molekuli ina jiometri linear yenye pembe ya dhamana ya ONO ya 180°.

Ni gramu ngapi za amonia ya gesi ambayo majibu ya gesi ya hidrojeni 3.0 g na 3.0 g ya gesi ya nitrojeni huzalisha?

Ingawa PF ₅ na ASF ₅ ni imara, nitrojeni haifanyi molekuli ya NF ₅. Eleza tofauti hii kati ya wanachama wa kundi moja.

Nitrojeni haiwezi kuunda molekuli ya NF ₅ kwa sababu haina orbitali d kuungana na atomi mbili za ziada za fluorini.

Hatua ya ulinganifu kwa titration ya sampuli 25.00-ml ya ufumbuzi wa CSOH na 0.1062 M HNO ₃ ni saa 35.27 ml. Je, ni mkusanyiko wa suluhisho la CSoH?

18.8: Matukio, Maandalizi, na Mali ya Phosphorus

Andika muundo wa Lewis kwa kila moja ya yafuatayo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding na jiometri Masi.

1. (a) PH ₃
2. (b)\(\ce{PH4+}\)
3. (c) P₂H₄
4. (d) \(\ce{PO4^3-}\)
5. (e) PF₅

(a)

;

(b)

;

(c)

;

(d)

;

(e)

Eleza muundo wa Masi ya kila moja ya molekuli zifuatazo au ions zilizoorodheshwa. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding na jiometri Masi.

1. (a) PH ₃
2. (b)\(\ce{PH4+}\)
3. (c) P₂H₄
4. (d) \(\ce{PO4^3-}\)

Complete and balance each of the following chemical equations. (In some cases, there may be more than one correct answer.)

1. (a) \(\ce{P4 + Al⟶}\)
2. (b) \(\ce{P4 + Na⟶}\)
3. (c) \(\ce{P4 + F2⟶}\)
4. (d) \(\ce{P4 + Cl2⟶}\)
5. (e) \(\ce{P4 + O2⟶}\)
6. (f) \(\ce{P4O6 + O2⟶}\)

(a) \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{4Al}(s)⟶\ce{4AlP}(s)\); (b) \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{12Na}(s)⟶\ce{4Na3P}(s)\); (c) \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{10F2}(g)⟶\ce{4PF5}(l)\); (d) \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{6Cl2}(g)⟶\ce{4PCl3}(l)\) or \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{10Cl2}(g)⟶\ce{4PCl5}(l)\); (e) \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{3O2}(g)⟶\ce{P4O6}(s)\) or \(\ce{P4}(s)+\ce{5O2}(g)⟶\ce{P4O10}(s)\); (f) \(\ce{P4O6}(s)+\ce{2O2}(g)⟶\ce{P4O10}(s)\)

Describe the hybridization of phosphorus in each of the following compounds: P₄O₁₀, P₄O₆, PH₄I (an ionic compound), PBr₃, H₃PO₄, H₃PO₃, PH₃, and P₂H₄. You may wish to review the chapter on advanced theories of covalent bonding.

What volume of 0.200 M NaOH is necessary to neutralize the solution produced by dissolving 2.00 g of PCl₃ is an excess of water? Note that when H₃PO₃ is titrated under these conditions, only one proton of the acid molecule reacts.

291 mL

How much POCl₃ can form from 25.0 g of PCl₅ and the appropriate amount of H₂O?

How many tons of Ca₃(PO₄)₂ are necessary to prepare 5.0 tons of phosphorus if the yield is 90%?

28 tons

Write equations showing the stepwise ionization of phosphorous acid.

Draw the Lewis structures and describe the geometry for the following:

1. (a) \(\ce{PF4+}\)
2. (b) PF₅
3. (c) \(\ce{PF6-}\)
4. (d) POF₃

(a)

;

(b)

;

(c)

;

(d)

Kwa nini asidi ya fosforasi huunda mfululizo wa chumvi mbili tu, ingawa molekuli ina atomi tatu za hidrojeni?

Weka hali ya oxidation kwa fosforasi katika kila yafuatayo:

1. (a) NaH ₂ PO ₃
2. (b) PF ₅
3. (c) P ₄ O ₆
4. (d) K ₃ PO ₄
5. (e) Na ₃ P
6. (f) Na ₄ P ₂ the ₇

(a) P = 3+; (b) P = 5+; (c) P = 3+; (d) P = 5+; (e) P = 3; (f) P = 5+

Asidi ya fosforasi, moja ya asidi inayotumiwa katika vinywaji vingine vya cola, huzalishwa na mmenyuko wa oksidi ya fosforasi (V), oksidi ya tindikali, na maji. Fosforasi (V) oksidi huandaliwa na mwako wa fosforasi.

1. (a) Andika formula ya maandishi ya oksidi ya fosforasi (V).
2. (b) Je, ni formula ya molekuli ya oksidi ya fosforasi (V) ikiwa molekuli ya molar ni karibu 280.
3. (c) Andika usawa wa usawa kwa ajili ya uzalishaji wa oksidi ya fosforasi (V) na asidi ya fosforasi.
4. (d) Kuamua wingi wa fosforasi inahitajika kufanya kilo 1.00 × 10 ⁴ ya asidi ya fosforasi, kuchukua mavuno ya 98.85%.

18.9: Matukio, Maandalizi, na Misombo ya Oksijeni

Kutabiri bidhaa ya kuchoma francium katika hewa.

Kwa ₂

Kutumia equations, kuelezea majibu ya maji na potasiamu na oksidi ya potasiamu.

Andika usawa wa kemikali kwa athari zifuatazo:

1. (a) chuma cha zinki kinachochomwa moto katika mkondo wa gesi ya oksijeni
2. (b) zinki carbonate moto mpaka hasara ya molekuli ataacha
3. (c) carbonate ya zinki aliongeza kwa suluhisho la asidi ya asidi, CH ₃ CO ₂ H
4. (d) zinki aliongeza kwa suluhisho la asidi hydrobromic

(a)\(\ce{2Zn}(s)+\ce{O2}(g)⟶\ce{2ZnO}(s)\); (b)\(\ce{ZnCO3}(s)⟶\ce{ZnO}(s)+\ce{CO2}(g)\); (c)\(\ce{ZnCO3}(s)+\ce{2CH3COOH}(aq)⟶\ce{Zn(CH3COO)2}(aq)+\ce{CO2}(g)+\ce{H2O}(l)\); (d)\(\ce{Zn}(s)+\ce{2HBr}(aq)⟶\ce{ZnBr2}(aq)+\ce{H2}(g)\)

Andika usawa wa kemikali kwa athari zifuatazo:

1. (a) cadmium kuchomwa katika hewa
2. (b) cadmium ya msingi imeongezwa kwenye suluhisho la asidi hidrokloric
3. (c) hidroksidi ya cadmium aliongeza kwa suluhisho la asidi ya asidi, CH ₃ CO ₂ H

Onyesha asili ya amphoteric ya hidroksidi ya alumini kwa kutoa mfano wa usawa unaofaa.

\(\ce{Al(OH)3}(s)+\ce{3H+}(aq)⟶\ce{Al^3+}+\ce{3H2O}(l)\);\(\ce{Al(OH)3}(s)+\ce{OH-}⟶\ce{[Al(OH)4]-}(aq)\)

Andika usawa wa kemikali kwa athari zifuatazo:

1. (a) alumini ya metali iliyochomwa moto
2. (b) watawala alumini moto katika anga ya klorini
3. (c) alumini moto katika gesi ya hidrojeni bromidi
4. (d) hidroksidi alumini aliongeza kwa suluhisho la asidi ya nitriki

Andika usawa wa kemikali kwa athari zifuatazo:

1. (a) oksidi ya sodiamu imeongezwa kwa maji
2. (b) cesium carbonate aliongeza kwa ziada ya suluhisho la maji ya HF
3. (c) oksidi ya alumini aliongeza kwa suluhisho la maji ya HclO ₄
4. (d) ufumbuzi wa carbonate ya sodiamu aliongeza kwa ufumbuzi wa nitrati ya bariamu
5. (e) chuma cha titani kilichozalishwa kutokana na mmenyuko wa tetrachloride ya titani na sodiamu ya msingi

(a)\(\ce{Na2O}(s)+\ce{H2O}(l)⟶\ce{2NaOH}(aq)\); (b)\(\ce{Cs2CO3}(s)+\ce{2HF}(aq)⟶\ce{2CsF}(aq)+\ce{CO2}(g)+\ce{H2O}(l)\); (c)\(\ce{Al2O3}(s)+\ce{6HClO4}(aq)⟶\ce{2Al(ClO4)3}(aq)+\ce{3H2O}(l)\); (d)\(\ce{Na2CO3}(aq)+\ce{Ba(NO3)2}(aq)⟶\ce{2NaNO3}(aq)+\ce{BaCO3}(s)\); (e)\(\ce{TiCl4}(l)+\ce{4Na}(s)⟶\ce{Ti}(s)+\ce{4NaCl}(s)\)

Ni kiasi gani cha ufumbuzi wa 0.250 M H ₂ SO ₄ inahitajika ili kuondokana na suluhisho ambalo lina 5.00 g ya CaCO ₃?

Ambayo ni asidi yenye nguvu, HClo ₄ au HBro ₄? Kwa nini?

HclO ₄ ni asidi kali kwa sababu, katika mfululizo wa oxyacids na formula zinazofanana, juu ya electronegativity ya atomi kuu, nguvu ni kivutio cha atomi kuu kwa elektroni za oksijeni (s). Kivutio kikubwa cha elektroni ya oksijeni husababisha kivutio kikubwa cha oksijeni kwa elektroni katika dhamana ya O-H, na kufanya hidrojeni ikitolewa kwa urahisi zaidi. Dhaifu hii dhamana, nguvu asidi.

Andika usawa wa kemikali ya usawa kwa mmenyuko wa ziada ya oksijeni na kila moja ya yafuatayo. Kumbuka kwamba oksijeni ni wakala wenye nguvu ya oksidi na huelekea kuimarisha kipengele kwa hali yake ya juu ya oxidation.

1. (a) Mg
2. (b) Rb
3. (c) Ga
4. (d) C ₂ H ₂
5. (e) CO

Ambayo ni asidi yenye nguvu, H ₂ SO ₄ au H ₂ SEO ₄? Kwa nini? Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya usawa wa asidi-msingi.

Kama H ₂ SO ₄ na H ₂ SEO ₄ ni wote oxyacids na atomi zao kuu zote mbili zina idadi sawa ya oxidation, nguvu ya asidi inategemea electronegativity ya jamaa ya atomi kuu. Kama sulfuri ni electronegative zaidi kuliko seleniamu, H ₂ SO ₄ ni asidi kali.

18.10: Matukio, Maandalizi, na Mali ya Sulfuri

Eleza kwa nini sulfidi hidrojeni ni gesi kwenye joto la kawaida, wakati maji, ambayo ina molekuli ya chini ya Masi, ni kioevu.

Kutoa hali ya hybridization na oxidation kwa sulfuri katika SO ₂, katika SO ₃, na katika H ₂ SO ₄.

SO ₂, sp ² 4+; SO ₃, sp ², 6+; H ₂ SO ₄, sp ³, 6+

Ambayo ni asidi yenye nguvu, NaHSO ₃ au NahSO ₄?

Kuamua hali ya oxidation ya sulfuri katika SF ₆, SO _{2 F 2}, na KHS.

SF ₆: S = 6+; HIVYO ₂ F ₂: S = 6+; KHS: S = 2-

Ambayo ni asidi kali, asidi sulfurous au asidi sulfuriki? Kwa nini?

Oxygen huunda vifungo mara mbili katika O ₂, lakini sulfuri huunda vifungo moja katika S ₈. Kwa nini?

Sulfuri inaweza kuunda vifungo viwili tu kwa joto la juu (hali kubwa ya endothermic), ambayo sio kesi ya oksijeni.

Kutoa Lewis muundo wa kila moja ya yafuatayo:

1. (a) SF ₄
2. (b) K ₂ SO ₄
3. (c) SO ₂ Cl ₂
4. (d) H ₂ SO ₃
5. (e) SO ₃

Andika milinganyo miwili ya kemikali ambayo asidi ya sulfuriki hufanya kama wakala wa oxidizing.

Kuna majibu mengi iwezekanavyo ikiwa ni pamoja na:

\[\ce{Cu}(s)+\ce{2H2SO4}(l)⟶\ce{CuSO4}(aq)+\ce{SO2}(g)+\ce{2H2O}(l)\]

\[\ce{C}(s)+\ce{2H2SO4}(l)⟶\ce{CO2}(g)+\ce{2SO2}(g)+\ce{2H2O}(l)\]

Eleza kwa nini asidi ya sulfuriki, H ₂ SO ₄, ambayo ni molekuli ya covalent, hupasuka ndani ya maji na hutoa suluhisho ambalo lina ions.

Ni gramu ngapi za chumvi za Epsom (MgSO ₄ 7H ₂ O) zitaunda kutoka kilo 5.0 ya magnesiamu?

5.1 × 10 ⁴ g

18.11: Matukio, Maandalizi, na Mali ya Halogens

Ina maana gani kusema kwamba halidi ya zebaki (II) ni electrolytes dhaifu?

Kwa nini SnCl4 haijawekwa kama chumvi?

SnCl4 si chumvi kwa sababu ni covalently bonded. Chumvi lazima iwe na vifungo vya ionic.

Athari zifuatazo zote zinafanana na zile za kemikali za viwanda. Jaza na usawa usawa wa athari hizi:

(a) mmenyuko wa msingi dhaifu na asidi kali

\[\ce{NH3 + HClO4⟶}\]

(b) maandalizi ya chumvi ya fedha ya mumunyifu kwa ajili ya kupamba fedha

\[\ce{Ag2CO3 + HNO3⟶}\]

(c) maandalizi ya hidroksidi ya strontium na electrolysis ya suluhisho la kloridi ya strontium

\[\ce{SrCl2}(aq)+\ce{H2O}(l)\xrightarrow{\ce{electrolysis}}\]

Ambayo ni asidi yenye nguvu, HClO3 au HBro3? Kwa nini?

Katika oxyacids na kanuni sawa, nguvu za asidi huongezeka kama electronegativity ya atomi kuu huongezeka. HclO3 ni nguvu kuliko HbRO3; Cl ni electronegative zaidi kuliko Br.

Je! Ni mchanganyiko gani wa iodini katika IF3 na IF5?

Kutabiri geometri Masi na kuteka miundo Lewis kwa kila moja ya yafuatayo. Unaweza kutaka kupitia sura juu ya kemikali bonding na jiometri Masi.

(a) IF ₅

(b)\(\ce{I3-}\)

(c) PCL ₅

(d) eF ₄

(e) CLF ₃

(a)

;

(b)

;

(c)

;

(d)

;

(e)

Ambayo halogen ina nishati ya ionization ya juu? Je, hii ni nini ungependa kutabiri kulingana na kile umejifunza kuhusu mali ya mara kwa mara?

Jina kila moja ya misombo yafuatayo:

(a) BrF ₃

(b) NaBRO ₃

(c) PbR ₅

(d) NaClo ₄

(e) KClo

(a) trifluoride ya bromini; (b) bromate ya sodiamu; (c) pentabromide ya fosforasi; (d) perchlorate ya sodiamu; (e) hypochlorite ya potasiamu

Eleza kwa nini, kwa joto la kawaida, fluorine na klorini ni gesi, bromini ni kioevu, na iodini ni imara.

Hali ya oxidation ya halogen katika kila moja ya yafuatayo ni nini?

(a) H ₅ IO ₆

(b)\(\ce{IO4-}\)

(c) ClO₂

(d) ICl₃

(e) F₂

(a) I: 7+; (b) I: 7+; (c) Cl: 4+; (d) I: 3+; Cl: 1−; (e) F: 0

Physiological saline concentration—that is, the sodium chloride concentration in our bodies—is approximately 0.16 M. A saline solution for contact lenses is prepared to match the physiological concentration. If you purchase 25 mL of contact lens saline solution, how many grams of sodium chloride have you bought?

18.12: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases

Give the hybridization of xenon in each of the following. You may wish to review the chapter on the advanced theories of covalent bonding.

1. (a) XeF₂
2. (b) XeF₄
3. (c) XeO₃
4. (d) XeO₄
5. (e) XeOF₄

(a) sp³d hybridized; (b) sp³d² hybridized; (c) sp³ hybridized; (d) sp³ hybridized; (e) sp³d² hybridized;

What is the molecular structure of each of the following molecules? You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding and molecular geometry.

1. (a) XeF₂
2. (b) XeF₄
3. (c) XeO₃
4. (d) XeO₄
5. (e) XeOF₄

Indicate whether each of the following molecules is polar or nonpolar. You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding and molecular geometry.

1. (a) XeF₂
2. (b) XeF₄
3. (c) XeO₃
4. (d) XeO₄
5. (e) XeOF₄

(a) nonpolar; (b) nonpolar; (c) polar; (d) nonpolar; (e) polar

What is the oxidation state of the noble gas in each of the following? You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding and molecular geometry.

1. (a) XeO₂F₂
2. (b) KrF₂
3. (c) \(\ce{XeF3+}\)
4. (d) \(\ce{XeO6^4-}\)
5. (e) XeO₃

A mixture of xenon and fluorine was heated. A sample of the white solid that formed reacted with hydrogen to yield 81 mL of xenon (at STP) and hydrogen fluoride, which was collected in water, giving a solution of hydrofluoric acid. The hydrofluoric acid solution was titrated, and 68.43 mL of 0.3172 M sodium hydroxide was required to reach the equivalence point. Determine the empirical formula for the white solid and write balanced chemical equations for the reactions involving xenon.

The empirical formula is XeF₆, and the balanced reactions are:

\[\ce{Xe}(g)+\ce{3F2}(g)\xrightarrow{Δ}\ce{XeF6}(s)\]
\[\ce{XeF6}(s)+\ce{3H2}(g)⟶\ce{6HF}(g)+\ce{Xe}(g)\]

Basic solutions of Na₄XeO₆ are powerful oxidants. What mass of Mn(NO₃)₂•6H₂O reacts with 125.0 mL of a 0.1717 M basic solution of Na₄XeO₆ that contains an excess of sodium hydroxide if the products include Xe and solution of sodium permanganate?