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28: Invertebrates

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    176668

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    Invertebrate animals are those without a cranium and defined vertebral column or spine. In addition to lacking a spine, most invertebrates also lack an endoskeleton. A large number of invertebrates are aquatic animals, and scientific research suggests that many of the world’s species are aquatic invertebrates that have not yet been documented.

    • 28.0: Prelude kwa Invertebrates
      Mtazamo mfupi wa gazeti lolote linalohusu ulimwengu wetu wa asili, kama vile National Geographic, lingeonyesha aina nyingi za wenye uti wa mgongo, hasa mamalia na ndege. Kwa watu wengi, hawa ni wanyama wanaovutia. Kuzingatia vimelea, hata hivyo, hutupa mtazamo wa upendeleo na mdogo wa viumbe hai, kwa sababu huacha karibu asilimia 97 ya ufalme wa wanyama, yaani uti wa mgongo.
    • 28.1: Phylum Porifera
      Rahisi zaidi ya uti wa mgongo wote ni Parazoans, ambayo ni pamoja na tu phylum Porifera: sponges. Parazoans (“kando ya wanyama”) hawaonyeshi shirika la ngazi ya tishu, ingawa wana seli maalumu zinazofanya kazi maalum. Mabuu ya sifongo yanaweza kuogelea; hata hivyo, watu wazima hawana motile na hutumia maisha yao yanayoambatana na substratum.
    • 28.2: Phylum Cindaria
      Phylum Cnidaria inajumuisha wanyama ambao huonyesha ulinganifu wa radial au biradial na ni diploblastic, yaani, huendeleza kutoka tabaka mbili za embryonic. Karibu wote (takriban asilimia 99) cnidari ni spishi za baharini. Kondari huwa na seli maalumu zinazojulikana kama cnidocytes (“seli za kuumwa”) zenye organelles zinazoitwa nematocysts (stingers). Seli hizi zipo karibu na kinywa na minyiri, na hutumikia kuzuia mawindo na sumu zilizomo ndani ya seli.
    • 28.3: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
      Wanyama mali ya superphylum Lophotrochozoa ni protostomes, ambapo blastopore, au hatua ya involution ya ectoderm au safu ya nje ya virusi, inakuwa mdomo ufunguzi kwa mfereji wa chakula. Hii inaitwa protostomy au “kinywa cha kwanza.” Katika protostomy, makundi imara ya seli hugawanyika kutoka safu ya endoderm au ya ndani ya virusi ili kuunda safu ya kati ya mesodermal ya seli. Safu hii huzidisha ndani ya bendi na kisha hugawanyika ndani ili kuunda coelom.
    • 28.4: Superphylum Ecdysozoa
      Ecdysozoa superphylum ina idadi kubwa ya aina. Hii ni kwa sababu ina makundi mawili ya wanyama mbalimbali: phylum Nematoda (roundworms) na Phylum Arthropoda (arthropodi). Kipengele kinachojulikana zaidi cha Ecdysozoans ni kifuniko chao cha nje kilichoitwa cuticle. Cuticle hutoa exoskeleton ngumu, lakini rahisi ambayo inalinda wanyama hawa kutokana na kupoteza maji, wadudu na mambo mengine ya mazingira ya nje.
    • 28.5: Superphylum Deuterostomia
      Phyla Echinodermata na Chordata (phylum ambayo wanadamu huwekwa) wote ni wa superphylum Deuterostomia. Kumbuka kwamba protostome na deuterostomes hutofautiana katika masuala fulani ya maendeleo yao ya embryonic, na hutajwa kulingana na ufunguzi wa cavity ya utumbo unaoendelea kwanza. Neno deuterostome linatokana na neno la Kigiriki linalomaanisha “mdomo wa pili,” kuonyesha kwamba anus ndiye wa kwanza kuendeleza.
    • 28.E: Invertebrates (Mazoezi)

    Thumbnail: Drosophila melanogaster. (CC BY-SA 2.5; André Karwath aka Aka kupitia Wikimedia Commons).